B.A. Social Notes

                        Modern Individualism Decline of the 19th century Individualism and emergence of Modern Individualism in the 20th century. After the 18th century, there was a decline in the influence of individualism and in its place the idealism and collectivism gained importance. Joad says, "The theory of individualism or its doctrine of freedom, which is very valuable in politics,when applied in economic sphere,proved disastrous". According to Joad,individualism is based on three misconceptions: 1-That each individual is equally sagacious and he has an equal capacity for knowing what he wants. 2-That each individual possesses an equal power of obtaining what he wants and an equal freedom of choice. 3-That the satisfaction of the wants of all individuals is identical with the well-being of the community as a whole. Thus on the basis of the reasons mentioned above, individualism suffered a setback and idealism and socialism took its place. But when both

                                      Nationalism Meaning of Nationalism Nationalism teaches us to love our motherland. The nationalists love their motherland, rivers, mountains, flowers, animals and birds very much and they say that motherland is better than paradise. Hans Kohn writes, "Nationalism is an idea, an idea-force which fills man's brain and heart with new thoughts and sentiments and drives him to translate his consciousness into deeds of organised action" . According to Dr. Garner , "It is one of the characteristics features of modern nationalism that most peoples who constitute a nationality aspire either to be independent and to be under a state organisation of their own choice and creation or at least to be according a large political autonomy where they are united with another nationality or nationalities in the same state" . Right of Self-Determination Meaning of the right of self-determination- The right means that each nationality sho

                              Modernisation Introduction Modernisation,in fact, started first of all in England as a result of Industrial Revolution (1760-1830). When America also started modernising herself in all fields, then this process was called westernisation. When the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America also began to industrialise themselves and adopt modern technology, and adapt themselves in social and economic fields to the changing needs of the time, then this process came to be regarded as modernisation. Modernisation is thus a process of change in all fields and indicates social transformation. Meaning of Modernisation 1- A society was regarded as "more or less modernised" by Levy "to the extent that its members use inanimate sources of power and /or use of tools to multiply the effects of their efforts." 2- A modern society according to Ward is characterised "by its far-reaching ability to control or influence the ph

              Authority and Legitimacy In day-to-day language we use the word authority. For example,we say that parents have got the authority over their children or elder brothers and sisters have got authority over their younger brothers and sisters.Similarly, we find the teachers have got authority over their pupils and the doctors exercising authority over his patients. The patients accepts the authority of doctors without any hitch in order to get the disease cured. Prof. Carl J. Fredrick in his treatise Man and his Government suggest that "the person weilding authority possesses superior knowledge or insight. This may be often true, but it is probably more universally appropriate say that people are usually willing to accept that person do have such knowledge or insight, without asking for proof." Authority is always legitimate and backed by the power of law and common consent.Legitimate power of influence is generally called authority. For example, if a policema

                              Influence Political Influence is the suitable outcome of possessions-wealth,health,education,charm and other things and the skill with which they are made use of. We have also seen that power is the ability of an individual or groups to influence another individuals or group. In this way influence is a relationship. It is a relationship between individuals or groups which can make another to act in a way that he may not do otherwise. We can distinguish between power and influence by saying that those who have got power, they can influence the conduct of others more easily than those who do not possess any power. It is admitted on all hands that power and influence are co-related terms but influence turns into power when sanctions enter. Suppose A is an officer and asks B (another subordinate official) to obey his orders,then if B refuses and A suspends him, then A has used his powers. So it is a process of sanctions which differentiates power from influ

                     Matriarchal Theory Macleannan , Morgan and Jenks are chief exponents of this theory. In their books, "Primitive Society"(1866) , "Studies is Ancient Society"(1877),"A History of Politics"(1900) ,they have explained this theory and rejected outrightly the proposition that patriarchal family was the earliest form of society. They maintain that the primitive family had no common male head and kinship was traced through mothers. The matriarchal family was prior to patriarchal family. The patriarchal family was possible only where monogamy or polyandry existed. The earliest form of marriage relation was polyandry. According to it one woman had more than one husband. In such a society kinship is traced through females and not males. Meclennan and Morgan share "the credit of discovering the clan, a maternally organised hereditary ,unilateral unit, unilateral because children under this system belonged to the clan of their mother wit

                                Patriarchal Theory So limited is the knowledge of the Political Scientists, regarding the origin of the state that it becomes very difficult, if not impossible to say when and how the state originated. But it can safely be asserted that the State is the outcome of historical evolution. Because, family is the oldest of all human institutions and because family is the first constituent of society, it has played a dominant role in the organisation of State. MacIver, an eminent political and social scientist, is of the same opinion. He says,"In the family,the primary social unit, there are always present the curbs and controls that constitute the essence of government, which is in continuation by the more inclusive society of a process of regulation that is highly developed within the family. The same necessities that create the family also regulate it. Here is government in miniature and already government of a quite elaborate character. "Th

                              The Force Theory a-Statement of the Theory- This theory holds that the state originated and developed by the use of naked force applied by the strong over the weak and their consequent subjugation. In the very beginning man lived in small groups (Guilds) and wondered from one place to another in search of food. Many times a fight broke out in these groups. Whenever the strong group succeeded in having its control over the weak group the State was organised, because the leader of the strong used to become the king and brought the defeated group into his subjection. In his famous book "History Politics" Jenks points out, "Historically speaking there is not the slightest difficulty in proving that all political communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare." This statement of Jenks makes it very clear that the state is the out-come of war and that "war begets the king." Voltaire has also admitted t

                                  Divine Theory a-Statement of the Theory According to this theory, the state is a divine institution of God has created it for the common welfare. This theory propagates that either God Himself rules over or sends his representatives or the deputy to rule over the people. The king is God's representative and therefore,he is responsible to God and not to the people.It is the supreme duty of the people that they should obey the commands of the king. To opposite the king is to oppose God.The king may be a tyrant, yet the people have got no right to go against the king. Disobedience to the king is the disobedience to God. King's opposition is God's opposition. It is not the people to ask the king to give the account of his deeds. God alone is entitled to ask the king to give the account of his good deeds or bad deeds. In this way the exponents of this theory regard the king and his administration as superior to the people and law. According

                                           Nationality Many political thinkers have defined "nationality " in their own way. As has already been stated that the term "nationality " has been derived from the Latin word "Natio" which commonly connotes the idea of birth or race. In this way by nationality we mean the status of a number of people who belong to one race and who have similar attitudes in regard to their race. But we should not forget that this literal meaning of the word "nationality " has undergone a revolutionary change. Richard W.F. Flournoy has very aptly remarked in this connection,"While nationality is sometimes used broadly with reference to blood relationships in the strict legal sense,there is no necessary connection between them." After marking out the meaning of nationality we quote a few definitions of nationality,given by various authors. 1-Legal definition of Nationality- The Nationality is "the s

                Marxist Theory of Rights Rights of liberal State welcomed- Marx and Engles welcomes the existence of civil rights in the contemporary bourgeoisie-democratic state because they represented an advance from the feudal state  where no such rights existed. Moreover,though from these rights the capitalist benefitted most, these rights also enabled the workers to organise easily against the capitalist and start agitations. Freedom of the Press defended- As the editor of Rheinixhe Zeitung, Marx wrote many articles defending the freedom of the press but criticised the law of censorship imposed by the state. According to Marx,censorship entirely destroyed the freedom of the Press and various rights conferred upon the people by the constitution. Adult Suffrage- Marx admitted that the capitalist were the major beneficiaries of the civil liberties or the rights guaranteed by the Constitution,since they could invest huge money to own and control the Press. In spite of that t

                          Individualism Individualism considers the State a necessary evil,but it wants to keep the State because without the state,law and order is not possible and without law and order the progress of civilisation and culture is not possible. In spite of all this, the individualist wants to limit the function of the state. Statement of the Theory of Individualism The principles of individualism is also called Laissez Faire in French language,which means,'leave the individual alone ' and there should be minimum interference, in his functions,by the government. It should be left to the will of the individual to do what he desires. The State or the government should only interfere when it feels that one individual is unnecessarily interfering in the liberty of the other. According to John Stuart Mill, the main function of the state is protection. Therefore,the maintenance of army,police,navy and courts is justified,but the things which are not directly

                              Nazism After the First World War (1914-18) the principles preached by Hitler are known as Nazism . There is no need to give details of Nazism,because it's principles are identical to those of Fascism. The reasons for the rise of Nazism-Germany faced a defeat in the First World War. Heavy war reparations were imposed on her . Many of her parts were given away to the neighbouring states and the German armed forces were reduced considerably. Many types of weapons of war. Germany suffered a severe loss in the war and its treasury lay empty. She had no money to give to the allies, i.e England, France the U.S.A.etc. but the allies wanted to realise the money from Germany by force. Thus the economic conditions of Germany deteriorated considerably. After World War I, Weimar Constitution of Germany was framed. According to it ,democracy was established. This democracy continued till 1919-1933. The democratic government of Germany could not solve the prob

                                Justice Justice is primarily a concept of morality. In short it is an ethical concept. The Marxist view of Justice is that its origin lies in the area of economics. According to Marx, the positive law of the State is imposed on its members by the authority of the class which controls the means of production. Law is determined by the economic interests of the ruling class. When private property is abolished and the means of production are controlled by the working class. Therefore the content of justice depends upon this thing that who controls the means of production? When the state withers away, as contemplated by the Communist,there will be justice without economic origin. Legal Justice When we apply the modern concept of justice,then we have to think of legal,political,social and economic justice. Legal justice is related to the process of law making and the judicial system of the society. In other words it means that law should be just and ther

                            Fascism Causes of the rise of Fascism in Italy-Italy was on the side of England and France during the World War I (1914-18) . Therefore, she had to suffer a great loss at the hands of Germany and Austria. Under the Secret Treaty of London,England agreed to give Italy sufficient money and the large territories,but when England became victorious in the war,she completely ignored the claims of Italy. Italy faced a great loss in the First World War. Therefore,there was a great resentment among its people. Secondly, there was widespread discontentment in Italy because after the war,retrenchment took place in the army. Production was falling because the communist were instigating the workers to resort to strike in order to bring in communism. Thirdly, there was indiscipline in all walks of life in Italy. Fourthly, the democratic government,which was established in Italy after the First World War, could not solve any of her problems satisfactorily. In such a sit

Third Round Table Conference (17th November to 24th December,1932) Sir Samuel Hoare, the Secretory of State for India, was a perfect snob. He had deep-rooted contempt for Indians. The very idea of sitting along with Indian delegates for deliberations was revolting to him. His intentions was to invite only a few Indians to put there case before a committee of parliament which was to draw the future constitution of India. With much reluctaince,however he agreed to call the Third R.T.C. which met form 17th November to 24th December, 1932. Only 46 delegates were invited this time as against 88 on the first occasion. The choice of Indian delegates was limited only to those persons who were loyal to the govt. Congress participation in the conference was out of question. The Civil Disobedience Movement had been revived and the govt. was busy in putting it down with an iron hand. Even the Hindu Mahasabha was not represented at the conference. The British Labour Party also withdraw because

                  Mountbatten Plan (3rd June) Lord Mountbatten even before being sent to India had been briefed by the British Government to arrange for the transfer of power in as smooth and quick a way as possible.He set himself to this task by holding talks with the leaders of both-the congress and the league. He settled the details with the congress and lead leaders. He left for England to discuss finally with Home Government and returned on June 2, with certain definite proposals. Next day he published his Plan. The salient features of Mountbatten Plan were as follows- 1- Mountbatten's Plan set down the partition of India as a settled fact.It proposed the division of India into two dominions and the transference of power to take place on 15th August,1947 , instead of June, 1948,as declared earlier. 2- Contrary to League's demand for a Pakistan including the whole of Bengal and Assam in the East and the Punjab in the West, the plan exclude Assam completely and also