Harappan Civilization
Harappan Civilization
In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian aides,particularly R.D. Banerjee, discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a civilization, one of the oldest of the world. A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. Recently, excavations carried out on the site of Kalibangan have revealed a third city as large as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.That the civilization was not confined to the limits of Indus Valley can be understood from the finds of relics of the same civilization at Sutkagendor on the sea board of south Baluchistan, in the west of Alamgirpur in the Uttar Pradesh in the east; and from Ropar in the Himalaya foothills in the north to Bhagatrav on the river kim in between the Narmada and Tapti in the south. This civilization belonged to the Chalcoholic i.e. Copper-Bronze Age of history; on trace on iron has been found.
Until the discovery of the remains of the Indus Civilization, it was believed by scholars that the history of India practically began with the coming of the Aryans. But this theory is an exploded one and the pre-historic civilization of India, that is, the Indus Civilization is contemporaneous with the civilization Mesopotamia, Egypt,etc.
Geographical Extent
The Harappan culture was the most extensive of the ancient civilization in area, including not only the Indus plain (the Punjab and Sind),but also northern Rajasthan and the regions of Kathiawar in western India. It was essentially a city culture and among the cultures of authority were the two cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The 1400 settlements, discovered so far are distributed over a very wide geographical area. Its known extent in the west is upto Sutkagendor in Baluchistan: Alamgirpur in Meerut district (Uttar Pradesh) in the east, Daimabad (Ahmednagar district,Maharashtra) in south; and Manda (Akhnoor district, Jammu and Kashmir) in the north, covering an area of almost 1600km. east-west and 1400 km. north-south. The total geographical area over which this civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the area of Egyptian and more than 12 times of the area of Egyption and Mesopotamian civilizations combined. It covers an area of about 12,50,000 sq. km. Harappan settlements are mostly located on river banks of Indus and Saraswati.
1-Agriculture- The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their of wheat and barley in April before the advent of the next flood.
The Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, kodon, sanwa, jowar, ragi etc. They produced two types of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banwali. In addition to this they produced sesame and mustard. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
2- Domestication of Animals- Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale, Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheeps domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated. The humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans. From the very beginning dogs were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have been noticed.
3- Trade and Commerce-The thriving agricultural economy supported a flourished trade within the northern and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region. There were two intermediate trading stations called Dilmun and Makan which lay between the regions of two civilizations.
4- Crafts and Industries- Mohenjo-daro was a great industrial centre. Weaving was probably the chief industry. Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dyeing. Pottery was an important industry. Harappans used to export these pots made on potter's wheel and burnt in kilns not only to nearby areas but also to the far-flung places. The art of smelting metals was well-known to the people of Harappa. Huge brick structures suggest that brick-laying was an important craft. They also attest to a class of masons. The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal-making and terracotta manufacturing. The Harappans were also expert in beadmaking.
5- Weight and Measures- The regulations of weights and measures form the basis of trade and Harappans were very accurate in this respect. The sexagesimal system and the decimal system were known to the Harappans. The weights were of cubical and spherical in shape and were made of chert, jasper, and agate and sometimes of grey stone and were in a series, first doubling from 1,2,4,8 to 64 then going to 160,320,640 and so forth. The unit of ratio was 16 equivalent to 13.64 grams.
The measurement as per the discovery of the bronze rod was divided accurately into units of 0.264 inches with an error of .003 inches. Another scale on a shell was on the decimal system of 1.32 inches forming a foot of 13.2 inches. 16 Chhatank made a ser and 16 annas made one rupee.
6- Transport- Harappa also had a good transporting system for their internal and external trade. Representation of ships and boats are found on some seals and as graffiti on pottery. For onland journey and transport, they relied upon the bullock carts and rarely horse carts. They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian sea.
7-Arts-The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense. They were well-acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze. Bronze-smiths produced images and utensils. They also made several kinds of tools and weapons, namely,axes,saws,knives,and spears. Jewelleries of silver, gold and copper were also made on a large scale.
The red sandstone torso of a man seems to show an attempt at portraiture. However, the bronze dancing girl, found in Mohenjo-daro is perhaps among the most striking Harappan figurines, Naked but for a necklace and a series of bangles, she stands in a provocative posture.
8- Currency- Thousands of seals have been discovered not only from the Harappan sites but also from the remains of other world civilizations. Every merchant and his family had a seal bearing an emblem and a brief inscription. But it is still unknown whether they used these seals as currency or not. In absence of evidence, it is safe to assume that the Harappans practised barter system and got goods they need in exchange of their articles.
2- Dress and Ornaments- All information about their dress is based on inference arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly, from the dress of statues and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women. Necklace, fillets, armlets, finger-rings and bangles were probably used by both the sexes.
Girdles, nose studs, ear-studs, anklets etc. may have been worn by women only as are proved by the statues.
The seals bearing figures, hair-pins, combs and a few statues also have been discovered in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
3- Religion- The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva, represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction and two deers appear at his feet.
-The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms.
-The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan, and Harappa.
-Indus people also worshiped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)
-They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.
4- Script- The script of the Harappa people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic but was logosyllabic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines, i.e. 'boustrophedon'.
5- Games- The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marble dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with plaything. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.
6- Disposal of the Dead- No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beast.
Town Plannings
The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan Culture is the town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or Sutkagendor were built on similar plan. To the west of each was a citadel built on a high platform. It was defended by wall and on it were constructed the public buildings.Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere,the main streets ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the streets. Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of Kiln-burnt burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential houses were made of sun-dried bricks. The drains, wells and bathing platforms were made of kiln-burnt bricks.The covered drains of the streets had soak-pits and manholes for clearing. There were also arrangements for street lighting.Economic Life
The discovery of granaries and the urban lifestyle of the people proves that the Harappan people were undoubtedly 'comfort loving' and were prosperous.1-Agriculture- The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their of wheat and barley in April before the advent of the next flood.
The Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, kodon, sanwa, jowar, ragi etc. They produced two types of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banwali. In addition to this they produced sesame and mustard. The Indus people were the earliest people to produce cotton.
2- Domestication of Animals- Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale, Oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheeps domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated. The humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans. From the very beginning dogs were regarded as pets. Cats were also domesticated and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have been noticed.
3- Trade and Commerce-The thriving agricultural economy supported a flourished trade within the northern and western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was the ancient name given to the Indus region. There were two intermediate trading stations called Dilmun and Makan which lay between the regions of two civilizations.
4- Crafts and Industries- Mohenjo-daro was a great industrial centre. Weaving was probably the chief industry. Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dyeing. Pottery was an important industry. Harappans used to export these pots made on potter's wheel and burnt in kilns not only to nearby areas but also to the far-flung places. The art of smelting metals was well-known to the people of Harappa. Huge brick structures suggest that brick-laying was an important craft. They also attest to a class of masons. The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal-making and terracotta manufacturing. The Harappans were also expert in beadmaking.
5- Weight and Measures- The regulations of weights and measures form the basis of trade and Harappans were very accurate in this respect. The sexagesimal system and the decimal system were known to the Harappans. The weights were of cubical and spherical in shape and were made of chert, jasper, and agate and sometimes of grey stone and were in a series, first doubling from 1,2,4,8 to 64 then going to 160,320,640 and so forth. The unit of ratio was 16 equivalent to 13.64 grams.
The measurement as per the discovery of the bronze rod was divided accurately into units of 0.264 inches with an error of .003 inches. Another scale on a shell was on the decimal system of 1.32 inches forming a foot of 13.2 inches. 16 Chhatank made a ser and 16 annas made one rupee.
6- Transport- Harappa also had a good transporting system for their internal and external trade. Representation of ships and boats are found on some seals and as graffiti on pottery. For onland journey and transport, they relied upon the bullock carts and rarely horse carts. They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian sea.
7-Arts-The Harappans were utilitarians although not completely devoid of artistic sense. They were well-acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze. Bronze-smiths produced images and utensils. They also made several kinds of tools and weapons, namely,axes,saws,knives,and spears. Jewelleries of silver, gold and copper were also made on a large scale.
The red sandstone torso of a man seems to show an attempt at portraiture. However, the bronze dancing girl, found in Mohenjo-daro is perhaps among the most striking Harappan figurines, Naked but for a necklace and a series of bangles, she stands in a provocative posture.
8- Currency- Thousands of seals have been discovered not only from the Harappan sites but also from the remains of other world civilizations. Every merchant and his family had a seal bearing an emblem and a brief inscription. But it is still unknown whether they used these seals as currency or not. In absence of evidence, it is safe to assume that the Harappans practised barter system and got goods they need in exchange of their articles.
Social and Religious Life
1- Class- It is not proved if their existed any classes or caste as the Aryan's varna system. Based upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the occupation of the people.2- Dress and Ornaments- All information about their dress is based on inference arrived at from two types of materials; firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly, from the dress of statues and carvings on different seals found in those cities. Ornaments were also popular among both men and women. Necklace, fillets, armlets, finger-rings and bangles were probably used by both the sexes.
Girdles, nose studs, ear-studs, anklets etc. may have been worn by women only as are proved by the statues.
The seals bearing figures, hair-pins, combs and a few statues also have been discovered in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
3- Religion- The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva, represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a different direction and two deers appear at his feet.
-The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various forms.
-The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan, and Harappa.
-Indus people also worshiped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc) and animals (unicorn etc)
-They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them.
4- Script- The script of the Harappa people had 400 to 500 signs and it were not alphabetic but was logosyllabic writing system. Although the Harappan script is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in alternate lines, i.e. 'boustrophedon'.
5- Games- The Harappans preferred indoor hobbies to outdoor amusements. Dance and music were their popular amusements. Some tubular and conical dices discovered in these cities show that the evil of gambling is as old as history. Another game which they played resembles our modern chess. Marble dolls and animals toys show that the children of Mohenjo-daro were well supplied with plaything. Fishing and hunting animals were other source of entertainment.
6- Disposal of the Dead- No definite proof is available regarding the disposal of the dead bodies yet. It is believed that the dead either burnt completely, cremation followed by burial of ashes and rarely the burial of the dead after exposure to birds and beast.
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